1. Introduction
Both in Reformed and Evangelical circles, much discussion revolves around the role of women in the church. It is not my intention to repeat everything that has already been said and written on the subject. Instead, I want to raise one argument for consideration in this article: the question of whether we are overly inclined to project our current way of structuring churches onto certain Bible passages. This projection often overlooks the fact that the early churches were much more akin to house churches than to the structured organizations we commonly see today. Does this difference matter? In this article, I aim to demonstrate that this could be a crucial perspective that is frequently overlooked.
2. The community as a Greek-Roman union
The Romans often gathered in associations known as collegia. Much of what we know about these gatherings comes from stone inscriptions found throughout the empire. Most of these associations were tied to work or a particular religious cult.
The symposium originated in the 7th century BCE in the Greek world. Only men were invited. They dined in an andron, a “men’s room,” furnished with 7 to 11 couches. Each couch could accommodate one or two reclining guests. Food was eaten by hand, with meat pre-cut into small pieces. The only women present were hetairai, prostitutes skilled in music, dance, and conversation. Symposia (plural of symposium) were an aristocratic activity, held in private homes. After the meal, wine mixed with water was consumed, typically at a ratio of two parts wine to five parts water or one part wine to two parts water. Post-meal activities included games, music, discussions, and singing. A particularly popular activity was the skolia, where a lyre was passed around, and each participant sang while accompanying themselves on the instrument.
The Romans held similar gatherings. Men of the same profession, trade, shared interests, or who worshiped the same deity often convened. Attendees belonged to the same social class, with separate gatherings for the wealthy and the poor. The average group size was less than 50 members, and meetings were held monthly, weekly, or even more frequently, lasting 3 to 4 hours. Gatherings took place in villa dining rooms, temple dining halls, or community houses. Like the Greeks, the Romans reclined on couches (known as klinai) arranged in a U-shape, referred to as a triclinium. Unlike the Greeks, Roman women were welcome at the meal but sat separately from the men. They were excluded from post-meal activities. Wine, mixed with water, was served during the meal rather than afterward. The dilution ratios were similar to those of the Greeks, with the alcohol content after mixing estimated at 3–4%.
The host organized the invitations and often sponsored the gathering, providing food. Sometimes, an animal was sacrificed to a deity, slaughtered in the temple, and its meat returned to the owner to be eaten or sold. Alternatively, participants could bring their own food (eranos) or send a basket of provisions to the host in advance. More commonly, they contributed money. Each meeting also had a symposiarch, responsible for maintaining order. Usually chosen by lot or dice roll, the symposiarch determined the water-to-wine ratio and ensured participants did not overindulge.
Gatherings followed a structured pattern. They began with a formal meal (deipnon). The host assigned seating, with the placement reflecting the guest’s social status. Slaves washed the guests' feet, served food pre-cut into small pieces for hand-eating, and provided bread for cleaning hands and faces. Used bread was thrown on the floor for dogs to consume. Women, slaves, and children dined separately on benches or, occasionally, women sat beside their husbands. From the mid-1st century, women sometimes reclined at these meals.
After the meal, the potos took place, during which an undiluted wine cup was partially poured out, usually in the center of the triclinium, to honor a deity (most often Dionysus or Zeus). The cup was then passed around, with each participant drinking and invoking the deity’s name. This process could be repeated to honor additional gods, resembling the modern custom of toasting.
The evening continued with entertainment or philosophical discussion, a portion of the event referred to as the symposium (literally, “drinking together”). This began with mixing water and wine in a large pitcher (krater). The symposiarch poured from the krater into a cup, dedicated it to Zeus the Savior, and spilled a small amount onto the floor or fire. He then took a sip and passed the cup around. Toasts could be repeated multiple times. Women were rarely present during this part of the evening, and if they were, they did not speak. Exceptions were gatherings celebrating weddings, where women sat at their own table. For entertainment, women were sometimes hired, often leading to the evening devolving into an orgy. Entertainment could also include music or poetry. Singing was a regular feature, usually in honor of a deity. Depictions suggest that overindulgence in wine often led to drunkenness, although Roman philosophers condemned this, and the symposiarch was tasked with preventing it.
3. An cristian symposium
Everything suggests that Christian gatherings in the early centuries were organized like a Greco-Roman meal. The terminology we find in the Bible shows a clear connection between Christian gatherings and Roman assemblies. However, there were some differences. During the meal, bread and wine were shared to celebrate the Lord's Supper together. The food was brought by those who gathered. Unlike the Romans, people came from all social classes. The wealthy brought extra, while the poor brought less or perhaps nothing at all. However, it was also common for the wealthy host to provide everything. And undoubtedly the most striking difference was that slaves and women sat at the same tables as the men.
The gatherings were held in private homes, usually in the homes of wealthier people, but sometimes in apartments, the so-called insulae. Given the size of the homes, the groups were likely no larger than 40 to 50 people.
4. Woman in the synagoge
When we think of the role of women in a synagogue, we often imagine women sitting in the gallery, separate from the men, with no contribution to the liturgy.
However, in the first century, the situation was completely different. Women were much more active in the gatherings. To hold a gathering, ten people were required. In the first century, women were included in this count. This continued to be the case until around 500 AD, after which only men were counted for this quorum. The Talmud shows that women regularly attended the synagogue.
Archaeological evidence confirms that in the first centuries, men and women were not separated in the synagogue. This separation only developed much later in history.
Nevertheless, men and women were not equal in all aspects. Women did not read from the Torah, as that was considered inappropriate.
5. Woman at the union
When Paul speaks about dress codes during the gatherings, he aligns with traditions from the Roman world. Elite men would cover their heads with a toga while leading prayers or offering sacrifices. When Paul calls for women not to cover their heads, he is opposing this practice. When he urges married women to wear a palla (a cloak), he is conforming to the prevailing custom. Paul does not want outsiders to get the wrong impression of Christian gatherings for unnecessary reasons. This is also why he only permits speaking in tongues in the church if there is an interpretation.
What about the command for women to remain silent (1 Cor. 14:34)? This cannot be meant as a general prohibition, because Paul does discuss women prophesying and praying. That is allowed, provided they are dressed appropriately. Likely, this refers to teaching in the gatherings. Women were not to teach with authority (see also 1 Tim. 2:11). It was also considered inappropriate for a woman to engage in public debate with a man. It was better for them to ask their husbands at home. On the other hand, there are indications that women could organize a gathering in their homes, such as Lydia. While this does not mean that this woman led the symposium, the second part of the evening, this was possible in the ancient world among the pagans. There is no reason to assume it was different in Christian gatherings.
Various non-biblical sources confirm that in the first centuries, women did not teach or serve the Eucharist, at least not in the orthodox communities. However, this did occur in some other groups.
6. Final remarks
It is striking to see how Paul sometimes indicates that faith represents a radical break from the prevailing practices of society, while at other times, he seeks to prevent unnecessary opposition to Christians. It seems that the latter is the case with Paul's remarks about the position of women in the church.
This has not yet taken a stance on the position of women in contemporary Christian congregations. Understanding the meaning of the relevant biblical texts is the beginning of the discussion, but certainly not the end when it comes to these kinds of ethical issues.